Vivariums;reptiles;Black Mamba

The black mamba feeding

Black mamba

The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is a venomous snake endemic to parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Specimens vary in color from grey to dark brown, but not black. Juvenile black mambas tend to be lighter in color than adults and darken with age. It is the longest species of venomous snake indigenous to the African continent; mature specimens generally exceed 2 meters (6.6 ft) and commonly attain 3 meters (9.8 ft). Specimens of 4.3 to 4.5 meters (14.1 to 14.8 ft) have been reported.

Although most mamba species are tree-dwelling snakes, the black mamba is not generally arboreal, preferring lairs in terrestrial habitats in a range of terrains. These include savannah, woodlands, rocky slopes and in some regions dense forest. It is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator, known to prey on hyrax, bushbabies and other small mammals as well as birds. It is also a pursuit predator; in this it resembles some other long, speedy, highly-venomous species with well-developed vision. Over suitable surfaces it is possibly the speediest species of snake, capable of at least 11 km/h (6.8 mph) over short distances. Adult mambas have few natural predators.

In a threat display, the mamba usually opens its inky black mouth, spreads its narrow neck-flap and sometimes hisses. It is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession. Its venom is primarily composed of potentneurotoxins which may cause fast onset of symptoms. Despite its reputation for being formidable and highly aggressive, like most snakes, it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered. Not being proximal to humans, bites from the black mamba are not frequent.

Conservation status

Scientific classification :

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Chordata

Class:Reptilia

Order:Squamata

Suborder:Serpentes

Family:Elapidae

Subfamily:Elapinae

Genus:Dendroaspis

Species:D. polylepis

Binomial name :

Dendroaspis polylepis
Günther, 1864[2]

Conservation status

Taxonomy

The black mamba is the species Dendroaspis polylepis in the genus Dendroaspis of the family Elapidae. The first formal description was by Albert Günther in 1864.[2][3] Although it had been known previously to missionaries[4] and residents[5] by the name "mamba". Which was already established in the vernacular, presumably borrowed from the Zulu language. In 1873, Wilhelm Peters described two subspecies: the nominotypical D.polylepis polylepis and also D.polylepis antinorii.[3] However, these are no longer held to be distinct.[2] In 1896,Boulenger combined the species (Dendroaspis polylepis) as a whole with the eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps),[6] alumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946, when FitzSimons split them into separate species again.[7][8]

The generic name, Dendroaspis, derives from Ancient Greek dendro (δένδρο), meaning "tree",[9] and aspis (ασπίς), which is understood to mean "shield",[10] but also denotes "cobra" or simply "snake", in particular "snake with hood (shield)". Via Latin aspis, it is the source of the English word "asp". In ancient texts, aspis or asp often referred to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje), in reference to its shield-like hood.[11]Thus, "Dendroaspis" literally means tree asp, reflecting the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus.

The specific epithet polylepis is derived from the Ancient Greek poly (πολύ) meaning "many" and lepis (λεπίς) meaning "scale".[12] It apparently refers to the scale count of this species, which is higher than some other species in the genus.

In red, range of D. polylepis
In brown, D. polylepis may or may not occur here

Synonyms[3]

Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis(Günther, 1864)
Dendraspis polylepis(Günther, 1864)
Dendraspis angusticeps(Boulenger 1896)
Dendraspis antinorii(Peters, 1873)
Dendroaspis polylepis antinorii(Peters, 1873)

Description :

Dendroaspis polylepis is a large, round-bodied, slender, but powerful snake. It tapers smoothly towards the tail, but is of markedly morerobust build than its distinctly gracile congeners Dendroaspis angusticeps and Dendroaspis viridis.[13] The head is often said to be "coffin-shaped" with a somewhat pronounced brow ridge and a medium-sized eye.[14] It is a highly proteroglyphous snake, with fangs up to 6.5 millimeters (0.26 in) in length[15] located at the front of the maxilla.[13] The adult snake's length ranges from 2 meters (6.6 ft) to 3 meters (9.8 ft) routinely[13] but, according to some sources, specimens have grown to lengths of 4.3 to 4.5 meters (14.1 to 14.8 ft).[7][13] Black mambas weigh about 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb)[16][17] on average. A specimen of 1.41 meters (4.6 ft) was found to have weighed 651.7 g (1.437 lb).[18] Dendroaspis polylepis is the second longest venomous snake species, exceeded in length only by the king cobra.[13]

In spite of its common name, the black mamba is not actually black;[7][13] in fact the interior of the snake's mouth is its only conspicuously black feature.[7] Specimens vary considerably in color; some are olive-brown to khaki, many are grey, and some individuals display dark mottling towards the posterior. Such mottling may appear in the form of oblique bars.[13] The underbody is often pale yellow or cream colored and the eyes are dark brown to black with a silver or pale yellow corona surrounding the pupil.[19] Juvenile snakes are lighter in color than adults, typically grey or olive green in appearance, and they darken with age.

The "black" mamba has been said to take its name from the color of the inside of its mouth, but this claim is an urban legend, a factoidthat lacks objective or historical support. In particular, it was referred to as the "black mamba" decades before knowledge of the color of its oral mucosa was in common circulation.[20][21] Common names for mambas are to be taken no more seriously than any other common names, and we find for example that attempts to impose the more logical common name "common mamba" for the "black mamba",[22]which after all is not black, have been abandoned in favor of applying "common mamba" to the Eastern green mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps. In the mean time, since the late twentieth century, some authors have unquestioningly copied the claim that the name derived from the color of its open mouth.[16]

Second: - If the snake is warmer the game changes a whole lot! Here is where the typical “Mamba” comes from. The snake moves forward at pace, starts raising the front part of its body (sometimes up to two thirds) and strikes out without slacking off in the forward pace. The rule of thumb here is to make sure you are one foot back for every one foot the Mamba is in length. After the initial lunge, the snake usually stops, and hisses with the mouth open. Any movement at this stage will encourage the snake to strike out.
This species rarely, if ever, delivers a dry bite. A bite from a large specimen will more than likely be on the head or chest area. Standing still is not an option, it's a necessity!On to catching this snake in the wild…

I have caught many Dendroaspis polylepis in the bush, and there are various methods of doing this, one of them is very, very risky indeed. First off, out of personal experience, Dendroaspis polylepis are true solar machines. Catching one, or trying to do so in the late afternoon is dangerous, very dangerous. I try to avoid this situation as best I can. On callouts, this is not always possible though. For those necessary callouts, i.e. snakes and man collide; I have made a catching bag. This is just a long, biggish diameter PVC pipe with a bag that ties onto it with Velcro. The PVC pipe has a long handle (around 5 feet) tied to it as well. Place the tube in front of the cornered snake and it bolts for the hiding place like lightning. Keep an eye on it to make sure it does not come back. I use a black, non see-through bag for this purpose. This method has given me a 100% success rate and not even a close call with regards to being bit. The second method is a touch riskier, but also very successful. It's a more hands on approach and requires two people. In any event, you really shouldn't be tackling them on your own. Bagging this species without a bagging frame etc. is very difficult. The snake tends to wrap as much of its body as it can around yours, making it very difficult to let go. For this method, I use a holding bin, a fairly deep, round bin. I fill the bottom quarter with field grass or newspaper. After spotting the snake, and giving it chance to get away, I use a method called "raking" with the hook stick. This is simply sliding the hook underneath the snake and pulling it back towards you (really keeping the snake in one place) until it visibly tires, but don't touch the snake with your hands yet. This could sometimes take awhile. When the snake tires, I tail it. The snake's head is then directed to the bin, which is placed on its side. Dendroaspis do not like going down, so an upright bin does not work very well. Once the snake is in the bin, I use the tongs to neck it. I then let the snake bite a bag a few times, and manipulate the bag around the body. This is basically done by reverse pinning it. I put the bag around its head, restrain it with my other hand on the outside of the bag, and slide the bag over it. Before the bag is let go, it is gripped closed with the tongs, and knotted to make a loop.

On to catching this snake in the wild…
I have caught many Dendroaspis polylepis in the bush, and there are various methods of doing this, one of them is very, very risky indeed. First off, out of personal experience, Dendroaspis polylepis are true solar machines. Catching one, or trying to do so in the late afternoon is dangerous, very dangerous. I try to avoid this situation as best I can. On callouts, this is not always possible though. For those necessary callouts, i.e. snakes and man collide; I have made a catching bag. This is just a long, biggish diameter PVC pipe with a bag that ties onto it with Velcro. The PVC pipe has a long handle (around 5 feet) tied to it as well. Place the tube in front of the cornered snake and it bolts for the hiding place like lightning. Keep an eye on it to make sure it does not come back. I use a black, non see-through bag for this purpose. This method has given me a 100% success rate and not even a close call with regards to being bit. The second method is a touch riskier, but also very successful. It's a more hands on approach and requires two people. In any event, you really shouldn't be tackling them on your own. Bagging this species without a bagging frame etc. is very difficult. The snake tends to wrap as much of its body as it can around yours, making it very difficult to let go. For this method, I use a holding bin, a fairly deep, round bin. I fill the bottom quarter with field grass or newspaper. After spotting the snake, and giving it chance to get away, I use a method called "raking" with the hook stick. This is simply sliding the hook underneath the snake and pulling it back towards you (really keeping the snake in one place) until it visibly tires, but don't touch the snake with your hands yet. This could sometimes take awhile. When the snake tires, I tail it. The snake's head is then directed to the bin, which is placed on its side. Dendroaspis do not like going down, so an upright bin does not work very well. Once the snake is in the bin, I use the tongs to neck it. I then let the snake bite a bag a few times, and manipulate the bag around the body. This is basically done by reverse pinning it. I put the bag around its head, restrain it with my other hand on the outside of the bag, and slide the bag over it. Before the bag is let go, it is gripped closed with the tongs, and knotted to make a loop.

On tailing Dendroaspis polylepis: They do not like it at all. When you do decide to tail it, do it gently and slowly. Move deliberately without haste. Once you have the hook under the snake, and the tail in hand, pull back firmly on the tail. The entire Dendroaspis genus has this habit of trying to use body leverage to pull itself free, and you are generally fighting against it when you tail one. If, however, the snake pulls loose, you are going to have a bad day. Be sure of what you are doing before you do it. Dendroaspis polylepis's reputation is certainly over inflated, but they still demand enormous respect, purely out of an ability point of view. These snakes probably rank as some of the most difficult snakes to catch, maintain safely and professionally in captivity, and restrain safely.

Conclusion:

This article was written out of admiration and out of a deep respect for Dendroaspis polylepis. No other snake in this world is the subject of the myth and lore that the Dendroaspis polylepis is subjected to. While many fear it across its native homeland, it's also admired by herpetoculturists around the globe. This article was written to give an in-depth look at some of the captive requirements and natural history of Dendroaspis polylepis. This species should only be kept by advanced hobbyists with many years of experience under their belt.

References:

1. “Calciseptine, a peptide isolated from black mamba venom, is a specific blocker of the L-type calcium channel - Jan R. De Weille, Hugues Schweitz, Pierrette Maes, Andre Tartar, and Michael Lazdunski.

Institut de Pharmocologie Moleculaire et Cellulaire, Unite Propre de Recherche

2. “Calciseptine, a Ca2+ Channel Blocker, Has Agonist Actions on L-type Ca2+ Currents of Frog and Mammalian Skeletal Muscle” (Journal of Membrane Biology) - M.C. García, Z. Hernández-Gallegos, J. Escamilla, J.A. Sánchez

Department of Pharmacology, Cinvestav, A.P. 14-740. Mexico D.F., 07300, Mexico

3. “Effects of calciseptine on unitary barium channel currents in guinea-pig portal vein.” - Teramoto N, Ogata R, Okabe K, Kameyama A, Kameyama M, Watanabe TX, Kuriyama H, Kitamura K.

The black interior of the mouth of a black mamba

Scalation :

Like most Elapidae, the scales of the black mamba are smooth and flat, without keels. Most specimens feature 23–25 rows of scales, but rarely as few as 21.[23]

The head, body and tail scalation of the black mamba:[23]

Dorsal at midbody: 23–25 (rarely 21)
Ventral: 248–281
Subcaudal: 109–132 (paired)
Anal plate: Divided
Upper labials: 7-8

Upper labials to eye: 4th (3rd and 4th)
Preoculars: 3 (occasionally 4)
Postoculars: 3-4 (occasionally 2–5)
Lower labials: 11-13 (occasionally 10–14)
Temporal: 2+3 (variable)

Distribution and habitat :

The black mamba has a wide and fragmented range within sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, it has been observed in: north east Democratic Republic of the Congo, south westernSudan to Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, eastern Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, southwards to Mozambique, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana toKwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, and Namibia; then north easterly through Angola to south eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.[15][24] The black mamba's distribution contains gaps within the Central African Republic, Chad, Nigeria and Mali. These gaps may lead physicians to misidentify black mamba bites and administer an inappropriate antivenom.[24]

The black mamba was also recorded in 1954 in West Africa, in the Dakar region of Senegal.[24] However, this observation, and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956, has not been confirmed and thus the snake's distribution in this area is inconclusive.[24] The black mamba is not commonly found at altitudes above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), although its distribution does reach 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) in Kenya and 1,650 metres (5,410 ft) in Zambia.[24]

The black mamba is primarily terrestrial, but occasionally arboreal, especially where it occurs in forest.[25] Typically it inhabits neglected areas of scrub, termite mounds, abandoned burrows and rock crevices.[23] It is adapted to terrain ranging from savannah and woodland to rocky slopes and dense forests.[24] The black mamba prefers moderately dry environments such as light woodland and scrub, rocky outcrops, and semi-arid dry savannah, to dense forest or arid desert.[24]

Behaviour and ecology

The black mamba is graceful but skittish and often unpredictable. It is agile and can move quickly.[15][23] It is shy and secretive by nature and, like most snakes, avoids threats.[23] In the wild, a black mamba seldom tolerates humans approaching more closely than about 40 meters.[23] When confronted it can display great truculence and is likely to gape in a threat display, exposing its black mouth and flicking its tongue. It also is likely to form a hood by spreading its neck-flap as cobras do. The mamba's hood however, is narrower than that of a typical cobra.[15][23] The threat display may be accompanied by audible hissing.[16]

During the threat display, any sudden movement by the intruder may provoke the mamba into a series of rapid strikes leading to severeenvenomation.[23] Also, the size of the black mamba, plus its ability to raise its head well off the ground, enable it to launch as much as 40% of its body length upwards, so mamba bites in humans quite often are on the upper body near the brain thus having quick effects.[15][26] This behaviour also permits the snake to land a strike at unexpectedly long range.[23] The black mamba's reputed readiness to attack is often much exaggerated and usually is provoked by perceived threats, such as blocking its intended retreat, accidentally or otherwise.[15]

A black mamba in defensive posture

Speed

For its slender body, the black mamba is deceptively powerful; it is the fastest moving snake indigenous to Africa, and perhaps the fastest anywhere.[27][28][29] It does however, move rather clumsily over soft sand, a surface to which it is not adapted.[30] There have been many unrealistic stories concerning the black mamba's speed,[31] perhaps partly because the slender body exaggerates the impression of speed.[32] These stories include the myth that it can outrun a galloping horse or a running human. On 23 April 1906, on the Serengeti Plains, an intentionally provoked black mamba was recorded at a speed of 11 km/h (6.8 mph), over a distance of 43 m (141 ft).[33][34][35] A black mamba would almost certainly not be able to exceed 16 km/h (9.9 mph),[31][32] and like most reptiles it can maintain such relatively high speeds only for short distances.[32]

Diet

The black mamba is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator, though it has been recorded as hunting partly by pursuit, such as catching pigeons at a watering hole before they can gain sufficient height to escape. It usually goes hunting from a permanent lair, to which it will regularly return, providing that the hunting is good and it is not disturbed.[15] It hunts mainly by sight and in doing so it commonly will raise much of its length well off the ground.[15] The black mamba does not typically hold onto prey after biting, instead releasing its quarry and waiting for it to succumb to paralysis and die.[19] This however depends on the type of prey; for example, it typically will hold onto a bird till it stops struggling to escape. If prey attempts to escape or defend itself, the black mamba often may follow up its initial bite with a rapid series of strikes to incapacitate and quickly kill its prey.[23] The snake has been known to prey on hyrax and rock hyrax, bushbabies, and bats.[7] The black mamba has a potent digestive system and has been observed to digest prey fully within eight to ten hours.[15]

Predators

Not many predators challenge an adult black mamba although it does face a few threats such as birds of prey, particularly snake eagles.[36] Although all species of snake eagle commonly prey on snakes, there are two species in particular that do so with high frequency, including preying on black mambas. These are the black-chested snake eagle (Circaetus pectoralis) and the brown snake eagle (Circaetus cinereus). The Cape file snake (Mehelya capensis), which is apparently immune to all African snake venoms and preys on other snakes including venomous ones, is a common predator of black mambas (limited only by the size it can swallow).[7][37][38]Mongooses which also are partially immune to venom, and are often quick enough to evade a bite, will sometimes tackle a black mamba for prey.[39] Humans do not usually consume black mambas, but they often kill them out of fear.[40]

Reproduction

The yellow mongoose will prey on black mambas

Not many predators challenge an adult black mamba although it does face a few threats such as birds of prey, particularly snake eagles.[36] Although all species of snake eagle commonly prey on snakes, there are two species in particular that do so with high frequency, including preying on black mambas. These are the black-chested snake eagle (Circaetus pectoralis) and the brown snake eagle (Circaetus cinereus). The Cape file snake (Mehelya capensis), which is apparently immune to all African snake venoms and preys on other snakes including venomous ones, is a common predator of black mambas (limited only by the size it can swallow).[7][37][38]Mongooses which also are partially immune to venom, and are often quick enough to evade a bite, will sometimes tackle a black mamba for prey.[39] Humans do not usually consume black mambas, but they often kill them out of fear.[40]

Reproduction

Black mambas breed annually and mating occurs in the early spring, when male mambas locate a female by following her scent trail. After finding a potential mate the male will inspect the female by flicking his tongue over her entire body.[15] As in other species of snakes and many other reptiles, fertilization is internal and theintromittent organs of the males are in the form of hemipenes.

Male black mambas engaged in combat

Females lay clutches of eggs with an incubation period of some 80 to 90 days. Like most snakes female mambas are both oviparous and iteroparous.[15] Egg-laying typically occurs during the middle of summer and egg clutches range from 6 to 17 eggs.[15]

During the mating season rival males may compete by wrestling, not by biting. Opponents attempt to subdue each other by intertwining their bodies and raising their heads high off the ground. Observers have on occasion mistaken such wrestling for mating.[41]

Black mambas are generally solitary, but not strictly so; as a rule they interact very little except in male rivalry during the mating season. However, black mambas are well known to share retreats occasionally, either with other mambas, or sometimes with other species of snakes.

In hatching, mambas break though the egg shell with an egg tooth and are born with fully developed venom glands; capable of inflicting a potentially lethal bite minutes after hatching. The body of the newly hatched snake contains the residues of the egg yolk, and assimilates them to sustain the young snake until it finds its first prey.[15]

Lifespan

There is little information available concerning the lifespan of wild black mambas, but the longest surviving captive example had a recorded lifespan of 11 years.[15][16] It is possible that wild snakes may live significantly longer than this.[15]

Venom

The venom of the black mamba is extremely toxic, commonly causing collapse in humans within 45 minutes or less from a single bite. Without effective antivenom therapy, death typically occurs in 7–15 hours. The venom is chiefly composed of neurotoxins, specifically dendrotoxin. The black mamba is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession. Despite its reputation for being highly aggressive, like most snakes, it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered.

The black mamba's venom is composed of neurotoxins (dendrotoxin) and cardiotoxins as well as other toxins such as fasciculins.[15][36][42]In an experiment, the most abundant toxin found in black mamba venom was observed to be able to kill a mouse in as little as 4.5 minutes.[43] Based on the murine median lethal dose (LD50) values, the black mamba's toxicity from all published sources is as follows:

- (SC) subcutaneous (most applicable to real bites): 0.32 mg/kg,[41][44][45][46] 0.28 mg/kg.[41][47]

-(IV) intravenous: 0.25 mg/kg,[44][45] 0.011 mg/kg.[48]

-(IP) intraperitoneal: 0.30 mg/kg (average),[49] 0.941 mg/kg.[44] 0.05 mg/kg[50] (the last quote doesn't make it clear if is either intravenous or intraperitoneal).

Its bites can deliver about 100–120 mg of venom on average and the maximum dose recorded is 400 mg.[36] It is reported that beforeantivenom was widely available, the mortality rate from a bite was nearly 100%.[16] The bite of a black mamba can potentially cause collapse in humans within 45 minutes, or less.[51] Without effective antivenom therapy, death typically occurs in 7–15 hours.[36] Presently, there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research to treat black mamba bites from many localities.[52]

A bite from a black mamba causes initial neurological and neuromuscular symptoms which may commonly include headache and a metallic taste in the mouth, which may be accompanied by a triad of paresthesias, profuse perspiration and salivation.[53] Other symptoms may include ptosis and gradual bulbar palsy.[53] Localised pain or numbness around the bite site is common but not typically severe;[54] therefore, application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site is feasible and may assist in slowing the onset of prominent neurotoxicity.[53] Without appropriate treatment, symptoms typically progress to more severe reactions such as tachydysrhythmias and neurogenic shock, leading to death by asphyxiation, cardiovascular collapse, or respiratory failure.[36][42][53]

Attacks on humans

The black mamba is popularly regarded as the most dangerous and feared snake in Africa;[43] to South African locals the black mamba's bite is known as the "kiss of death".[55]However, attacks on humans by black mambas are rare, as they usually try to avoid confrontation, and their occurrence in highly populated areas is not very common compared with some other species.[56] Additionally, the ocellated carpet viper is responsible for more human fatalities due to snakebite than all other African species combined.[47] A survey of snakebites in South Africa from 1957 to 1963 recorded over 900 venomous snakebites, but only seven of these were confirmed black mamba bites, at a time when effective antivenom was not widely available. Out of more than 900 bites, only 21 ended in fatalities, including all seven black mamba bites.[57]

Reported bite cases

In 1998, Danie Pienaar, now head of South African National Parks Scientific Services,[58] survived the bite of a black mamba without antivenom. Although no antivenom was administered, Pienaar was in serious condition, despite the fact the hospital physicians declared it a "moderate" black mamba envenomation. At one point, Pienaar lapsed into a coma and his prognosis was declared "poor". Upon arrival at hospital Pienaar was immediately intubated, given supportive drug therapy, put on mechanical ventilation and was placed on life support for three days, until the toxins were flushed out of his system. He was released from hospital on the fifth day. Pienaar believes he survived for a number of reasons. In an article in Kruger Park Times he said: "Firstly, it was not my time to go." The article went on to state, "The fact that he stayed calm and moved slowly definitely helped. The tourniquet was also essential."[59]

In another case, 28-year-old British student Nathan Layton was bitten by a black mamba and died of a heart attack in less than an hour in March 2008. The black mamba had been found near a classroom at the Southern African Wildlife College in Hoedspruit, where Layton was training to be a safari guide. Layton was bitten by the snake on his index finger while it was being put into a jar, but he didn't realize he'd been bitten. He thought the snake had only brushed his hand. Approximately 30 minutes after being bitten Layton complained of blurred vision. He collapsed and died of a heart attack, nearly an hour after being bitten. Attempts to revive him failed, and he was pronounced dead at the scene.[60][61]

In 2013, in a rare case of survival without treatment, American professional photographer Mark Laita was bitten on the leg by a black mamba during a photo-shoot of a black mamba at a facility in Central America. The bite ruptured an artery in his calf, and he was gushing blood profusely. Laita did not go to the doctor or the hospital, and except for the swollen fang marks giving him intense pain during the night, he was not affected and was fine physically. This led him to believe that the snake either gave him a "dry bite" (meaning without injecting venom) or that the heavy bleeding pushed the venom out. Some commenters to the story suggested that it was a venomoid snake (in which the venom glands are surgically removed). Laita responded that it was not the case. Only later, Laita found that he had captured the snake biting his leg in a photograph.[62][63][64]

For the external links , refrences click here to read the full wikipedia article

Video :

The Black Mamba

Courtesy to : www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/336from Joe Switalski and Martin Smit on June 29, 2007

Deadly Black Mamba faster than people can run

The Black Mamba: Some insight into

Africa's most notorious serpent.

By Joe Switalski and Martin Smit

Range:

Dendroaspis polylepis has a very widespread range in Africa, in which it hails from Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Botswana, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zaire. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats that include open savannahs, open woodlands, and rocky outcrops. It has been noted they will take shelter in termite mounds, tree hollows, and mammal burrows, as well as some unsuspecting locals' homes.

Description:

This is a long, slender elapid, which grows to an average size of 2.5 meters (8.2 feet). Specimens that are in the 10-12 foot range are not uncommon at all, and the record for Dendroaspis polylepis is 4.5 meters (14.4 feet). The dorsal coloration ranges from an olive brown to gunmetal gray, which is more commonly seen in specimens from South Africa. The most commonly known aspect is the “coffin shaped” head that this species possesses. This snake receives its name from the coloration inside the mouth, not from the body color.

Captive Notes:

Out of all the elapids, Dendroaspis polylepis is a very rewarding species to maintain in captivity and by far, my favorite out of the elapidae family. The one thing about Dendroaspis polylepis is its highly variable demeanor. Some specimens are very calm, and will get flighty only if you disturb them in a rough manner. These can be handled with relative safety, until something spooks them or sets them off. On the other hand, you will have specimens that will be extremely jumpy and will explode with a force that is second to none. Their speed is often too fast for a reaction, which makes handling such flighty specimens, a completely different story. The most obvious warning is a gape of the mouth, and then a quick advance at their perceived threat.

Some keepers have noted differences in behavior between animals that were wild caught and those that were captive bred. Captive bredDendroaspis polylepis seem more tolerant of humans being around them as opposed to wild caught specimens. When housing a newly wild caught Dendroaspis polylepis, keep interactions with the snake to a bare minimum. It's not a good idea to handle such an animal. Give it time to settle down. When you enter the snake room and it doesn't flatten its neck and gape at you, but rather remains in the basking spot, it's fairly settled. Wild caught Dendroaspis polylepis are nothing like the captives you see in a zoo. They are still the “monster” snake that is feared across Africa. They will attack with very little provocation, simply because it has no place to flee to. Wild Dendroaspis polylepis very rarely allow a close approach in the bush, so being in close quarters with humans will result in great agitation. They tend to grow accustomed to human interaction over time though, as they learn that the keeper poses no threat; hence they become less uneasy in our presence. I have also seen the opposite, as in my case, my wild caught juvenile Dendroaspis polylepis are extremely calm, compared to my adult captive born and bred female, which is very aggressive and will become agitated at the slightest annoyance. It is very interesting to see how each snake will vary in terms of personality and behavior.

Caging is by far the most important aspect when maintaining this species in captivity. They require a large and extremely roomy terrarium. I house my specimens in Vision cages, which in my opinion, is probably in the top three choices for safe, secure caging for venomous reptiles. The one drawback in regards to Vision cages is the infamous lip at the top and bottom, which could easily conceal a snake. I know keepers that fix that problem by using caulk or spray foam to take that advantage away from the snake and to avoid a possible nasty surprise. Another brand of available commercial caging that is large enough to house adult Dendroaspis polylepis safely, is Animal Plastics. Of course, I have seen homemade cages that are very good and have the exact things a keeper would want for their “ideal” cage.

Trap boxes are a must! This is a very essential item to have when working with this species. Many specimens will use it as their favorite spot to hide. It also will come in handy on the days the snake is acting up, and it will retreat into the trapbox. You can then cautiously open the enclosure and slide closed the door on the trap box. I have seen some commercially made trap boxes, but many keepers choose to make their own that fits their own needs and requirements, as well as the snake's. For neonates or juveniles, the old cages made by Neodesha work fine. Just add some branches, a water bowl, and a nice hide box, and the younger specimens will feel right at home. Feeding these snakes usually presents no problems whatsoever. I have heard stories about fresh imports feeding on their first meal within hours of their arrival here in the US. For babies to juveniles, I feed them an appropriate sized rodent every three days, due to their extremely high metabolism rate, which is second to none. They usually have the whole meal digested and defecated within 24-36 hours. For the adults, two adult rats a week will be sufficient.

Antivenom:

Dendroaspis polylepis venom is extremely virulent. It is a combined neurotoxin and cardiotoxin. The genus Dendroaspis also produces a class of neurotoxins, known as dendrotoxins. This toxin acts as a strong convulsant. It allows for more neurotransmitter to be released at neuromuscular junctions, thus blocking the potassium channels, which will cause your body to convulse. I cannot stress enough how important it is to keep your own antivenom, or at least have close access to some if you keep this species. If you ever had to use a zoo's stock in the event of an emergency, please offer to reimburse them for using it. While the SAIMR antivenom that would be used in the event of a Dendroaspis polylepis bite works extremely well, it will not reverse the damages done by the cardiotoxins. Before antivenom was available, the bite from Dendroaspis polylepis was virtually 100% fatal. While most private keepers here in the US would rely on zoos if they were bitten, it's a different story for keepers in South Africa, in which the local hospital has in stock the necessary antivenom. A bite to a keeper in South Africa probably wouldn't make the news, but a bite to a keeper in the states could make national headlines depending on the situation and what actions are taken to save the victim.

Field Notes: Tales from bush land of South Africa.

Wild Dendroaspis polylepis are easily the most feared animals in the bush, by man and animals alike. I have seen even lions and elephants back away from a large Dendroaspis polylepis with its characteristic black mouth lining, and the reflecting silver tips. Adult Dendroaspis polylepis over 8 feet have no natural predators in Southern Africa.
Dendroaspis. polylepis are creatures of habit. They frequent the same basking spot, hiding spot and hunting spot for as long as they aren't forcibly removed. They travel by the same pathways, generally avoiding game trails. If you get within 40 feet you are very lucky, or it is still early morning. This combination of habits and nervousness make this species a rare find in houses, barns etc., although it does happen from time to time, in particular the younger specimens. Catching this species is precarious at best, utilizing enormous skill and patience. In the wild, Dendroaspis polylepis is not used to interacting with people, and will voice their displeasure rather vehemently. Its first option is always escape. If this option is not given, it will stand its ground. The chain of events usually takes two paths from here:

First: - If the snake is still cold or cool it usually stays in one spot, lifts its head and front third of the body. It then flattens the neck, opens its mouth to show the black lining and emits a hollow hiss. Any further antagonizing will result in a few rapid and unerringly accurate strikes.

BLACK MAMBA

courtesy to : www.reptilesmagazine.com/Snake-Species/Black-Mamba/

Dendroaspis polylepis

Family: Elapidae
Adult Size: This slender, graceful, nervous, alert, often defensive, predominantly terrestrial but occasionally arboreal, cobra ally frequently exceeds 9 feet in length. The record length is a remarkable (and very respectable) 14 1/3 feet! The immovable fangs are long and in the very front of the mouth. A casual nip can effect envenomation.
Range: This snake ranges southward from central eastern Africa (Somalia and Ethiopia) to South Africa.
Habitat: This is a species of dry woodlands, shrubby savannas and coastal bushlands. Although persistently arboreal when active, black mambas may seek refuge in burrows, tree cavities, termite nests, easily accessed piles of vegetation and debris, rock fissures and rarely in (usually deserted) human habitations. They shun desert habitats.
Captive Lifespan: 12 to 20 Years
Dangerous:
Care Level: Advanced

Overview:

This snake is dangerously venomous. It is from the color of the mouth lining, not of the body, that this snake derives its common name. The olive brown to gray scales are smooth and of velvety appearance. Gray examples seem most common in the southern portion of the range. Appropriate for such a dangerously venomous snake, the elongate, flat-sided head is often referred to as coffin-shaped. When being defensive a black mamba will raise the forward third of its body and flatten its neck into a narrow but discernible hood, gape and hiss loudly.

Hatchling and juvenile black mambas can be kept in terraria of 20 to 50 gallon capacity. An adult will require a minimum of a 125 gallon capacity and larger is better. The terrarium should be well ventilated and have a foolproof locking top. Fortunately, most captive black mambas will readily accept a small hidebox with a locking door (called a trapbox), easing the moving of the snake when the occasion arises. The trapbox will be most readily and continuously accepted if it is located in a quiet area of the cage and is always in the same place. Sturdy, well anchored, horizontal climbing limbs are usually readily used. To facilitate the handling of this dangerous snake the cage design should be simple but effective.

This short profile is not the venue to describe safe handling techniques for a large mambaâ”if, in fact, there are any. Certainly, once the snake is in its trapbox the careful closing and locking of the door and then the moving of the box is the safest of all methods. Barring that, the use of a clamp stick is the next safest method, but due to the speed, agility and size of this dangerous snake even the deft use of a clampstick is an accident in waiting. Seek the help of an experienced elapine keeper, heed all admonitions given, and be ready to invoke cautions of your own.

A temperature gradient of several degrees should be provided. At the cool end of the terrarium a temperature of 74 degrees Fahrenheit is suitable but the warm end should be 84 to 86 degrees. A basking hotspot of 94 to 100 degrees will be utilized during thermoregulation.

Cypress, fir, aspen chips or bark shards are excellent choices for a substrate. After locking your mamba in its trapbox feces can be removed with a small, long handled shovel. A large water bowl (kept scrupulously clean) should always be provided. The snakes will both drink, and if the receptacle is large enough, soak in the bowl. Keeping your snake well hydrated and its cage humidity fairly high will help assure complete, healthy sheds.

Black mambas have a very high metabolism. They will require feeding twice a week. Hatchlings should be fed pinky mice. As the snake grows, so, too, should the size of the prey items increase. Adult black mambas can readily ingest and speedily digest a half to three quarter grown rat. Large adults will accept large breeder rats without mishap.

Black mambas are active year around. It is probable that climatic cues such as photoperiod, ambient temperature and relative humidity stimulate ovulation. This oviparous snake produces between 8 and 15 eggs in a clutch.

Other and recommended websites :

- blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/03/black-mamba-memories-working-with-one-of-the-worlds-deadliest-snakes/#.V-tOKyh97IU

- www.snaketype.com/black-mamba/

- answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100314192348AAoUYfg

- www.softschools.com/facts/animals/black_mamba_facts/324/

- www.venomoussnakes.net/blackmambasnake.htm

Videos :

Black Mamba. IT'S ALL ABOUT ME..

Black Mamba handling