Dart Frogs species :
there are two groups of dart frogs :
- South America Dart Frogs .
- Madagascar Dart frogs .
Madagascar Dart frogs
Madagascar is thought to have more than 300 species of frogs, 99 percent of which are endemic. Frogs are the only amphibians found in Madagascar—there are no toads, salamanders, or newts.
Mantella are among the most popular of Malagasy frogs in the pet trade. These strikingly beautiful frogs fill a similar ecological niche to the poison dart frogs of South America in that both use bright colors to advertise their toxic skin secretions to predators. Using an opposite survival strategy are the Mantidactylus, which rely on cryptic camouflage instead of gaudy colors.
Madagascar is also home to tree frogs (Boophis, Heterixalus) and a group of toad-like frogs including the Tomato frog (Dyscophus antongili), which releases a sticky glue-like secretion that protects it against colubrid snakes, cats, and dogs. The secreted substance can produce an allergic reaction in humans as well.
Mantella frogs
Poisonous jewels of Madagascar: Tiny mantella frogs are among the most brightly colored and spectacular of all frogs. Most can be found in a variety of color combinations—inky black with brilliant splotches of orange, bronze, yellow, blue, or emerald green. These bright, eye-catching colors serve as a warning to predators that the little frogs are poisonous.
All mantellas have toxic skin secretions, some more so than others, but they all have the bold, beautiful colors that seem to shout, “I’m toxic!” This is known as protective mimicry or aposematism, a very clever adaptation. By having the bright colors of the more toxic species, the frogs are avoided by predators. But the most glorious coloring in the world won’t protect a mantella if it can’t be seen, and that is why all mantellas and poison frogs are diurnal, while most other frog species are nocturnal.
Mantellas are found only on Madagascar
An island nation off the eastern coast of Africa. Many mantella species secrete toxins like those found in South America's poison frogs. They get alkaloid toxins from the prey that they eat: primarily ants, termites, and fruit flies. They then use these toxins for their own chemical defense. While not deadly like the golden poison frogs, mantellas secrete enough toxins to make a predator sick or, at the very least, the little frogs can make themselves taste quite nasty!
Interestingly, human actions can affect how toxic mantellas might be. For example, mantellas living in areas untouched by human activity have more alkaloid toxins in their bodies than those living in areas that have been polluted. Why? As humans move into mantella habitat or pollute it with contaminants, many of the frogs' prey items are killed off, and there is less variety for the mantellas to eat. Fewer food choices mean fewer alkaloids to be absorbed which leads, eventually, to less toxic frogs.
Besides their bright colors, toxicity, and diurnal natures, mantellas also share some other remarkable similarities with their distant poison frog cousins. Both live almost entirely on land, although two mantella species spend a lot of time in trees. And, like poison frogs, mantellas are quite small, reaching no more than 2 inches (5 centimeters) in length. How can two animals that are not closely related end up being so similar? Both frog families evolved to fill similar niches, so they developed similar adaptations. This is known as convergent evolution.
Most frogs have webbed toes to help them swim, but not mantellas! They spend their lives crawling around on the jungle floor among leaves, under decaying trees, or occasionally on branches close to the ground, so there is no need for webbed toes. They also have short legs designed more for climbing than for long hops. Arboreal mantellas have swollen, sticky fingertips that help them hang on while moving around aboveground.
Mantella
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mantella (also known as golden frogs or Malagasy poison frogs) are a prominent genus of aposematic frogs in the family Mantellidae, endemic to the island of Madagascar.[1] The members of the genus are diurnal and terrestrial in behaviour, exhibiting bright colouration or cryptic markings which are species specific.
Mantella
Golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca)
Scientific classification:
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Amphibia
Order:Anura
Family:Mantellidae
Subfamily:Mantellinae
Genus:Mantella
Boulenger, 1882
Natural history :
Mantella are an example of convergent evolution—the independent evolution of a similar trait with species of a different lineage. In this, they are similar to the family Dendrobatidae from Latin America in size, appearance and also some aspects of their behaviour. However, they are in no means related to the famous neotropical family. During the early description of the first specimens from 1866–1872, Alfred Grandidier described both the brown mantella (Mantella betsileo) and Malagasy mantella(Mantella madagascariensis) and placed them within the Dendrobates genus, based upon their close resemblance to them. Of course, the placement of these new species was ambiguous and heavily debated until in
1882, George Albert Boulenger created the Mantella genus after describing Cowan's mantella (Mantella cowanii). Unfortunately, they were still incorrectly placed within the family Dendrobatidae and can be found listed in late 19th century publications as a part of the family. The Royal Natural History (1893) by Richard Lydekker being one such example, writing that the Mantella genus is one of two genera representing the family and that they can be "distinguished by the tip of the tongue being notched; while in Dendrobates of Tropical America the tongue is entire."[2]
Description :
All the species of the genus are considered small frogs in morphology, typically varying in sizes of 18–31 millimetres (0.71–1.22 in)[3]. They are sexually dimorphic in size, with female specimens usually being larger. Mantella are often compared to the neotropical family of Dendrobatidae due to their use of aposematism (from Greek ἀπό apo away, σῆμα sema sign), a defense mechanism that uses dramatic colourations to deter potential predators. Colourations and markings vary from species to species, with combinations of green, red, orange, yellow, blue, brown, white and black.
Distribution :
Mantella are endemic to the island of Madagascar and its smaller coastal islands ("Nosy" in Malagasy). They inhabit a wide variety of different habitat types including primary rainforests, secondary rainforests, swamps, bamboo forests, semi-arid streambeds, slow moving forest streams, seasonal streams, montane grassland savannah and in wet canyons.[3][4][5]
Local variations :
There are several populations of Mantella species that exhibit more unusual colourations, some of which being intermediates between species living sympatry. For example, there are populations of yellow mantella (Mantella crocea) and black-eared mantella (Mantella milotympanum) from Fierenana, Andriabe, Ambohitantely Reserve and Savakoanina that have green, red and yellow colourations. Due to this, reliability of distinguishing the two species is therefore not possible.[6]
Baron's mantella (Mantella baroni) have also been reported at Pic d'Ivohibe Reserve being almost entirely green in colouration with black patches and spotting, lacking their distinctive orange and irregular black crossbands. These specimens are normally referred to as Mantella aff. baroni.[7]
Taxonomy :
There are currently 16 species that make up the genus of Mantella, with five recognised species groups.[1][3] Most of the species can be easily indentifiable by their colour patterns, although there are a number of locality variations which have a uncertain taxonomic status.[3]
Threats :
Several species in the genus are threatened because of habitat loss (due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction and charcoal production, fires, draining of wetlands, the spread of invasive eucalyptus and expanding human settlements), mining, hybridization and over-collection for the international pet trade.[4] As a result of these threats to most of Madagascar's fauna and flora, some are listed as Least Concern(LC), Near Threatened (NT), Vulnerable (VU), Endangered (EN) or Critically Endangered (CR) by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Gallery :
Mantella expectata
Mantella aurantiaca
Mantella bernhardi
Mantella baroni
Mantella cowanii
For the external links , refrences click here to read the full wikipedia article
Video :
Golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca) eating fruit flies
Poison Frogs of the Genus Mantella
courtesy to : www.reptilesmagazine.com/Frog-Amphibian-Species/Poison-Frogs-of-the-Genus-Mantella/
BY DEVIN EDMONDS
Peering through a small aquarium’s water-stained glass, I spotted what I had saved my allowance for weeks to buy. A tiny frog poked its head out from a pile of moss in the corner and hopped toward the front of the tank chasing an unsuspecting cricket. This beauty was the lone orange frog of several assorted mantellas this local pet store had left. I brought it home and placed it into a heavily planted terrarium. Then I sat down in front of the enclosure and eagerly watched as the frog explored its new surroundings.
That was 1996. It was my introduction to the genus Mantella, a fascinating group of frogs endemic to the island of Madagascar. With their bright aposematic coloration and diurnal behavior, mantellas have become popular vivarium subjects.
It’s a thrill to watch a group of them interact. Males wrestle each other over territory or call from atop leaf litter in the cage. Not only is their captive behavior interesting but also their natural history. Get to know these unique amphibians and you, too, will likely become passionate about the poison frogs of Madagascar.
Mantella Natural History :
The island of Madagascar is home to more than 220 species of frogs found nowhere else in the world, including the 16 described Mantella species. Most live in the eastern tropical forests, but species also inhabit drier regions in the western half of the island. Some, such as M. ebenaui, are adaptable and reside in dry woods, rain forests and degraded habitat within their range, but most mantellas are specific to where they live and have small restricted distributions.
Mantellas are most active during the wettest time of year: December to February. During this time males call loudly to defend territory, and females feed on ants, mites and other small invertebrates in preparation for breeding.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
The island of Madagascar is home to more than 220 species of frogs found nowhere else in the world, including the 16 described Mantella species. Mantella aurantiaca.
Most species breed near streams. Eggs are laid nearby on land, usually in moist depressions. The water from heavy rain then flushes the developing tadpoles into nearby pools of water.
When the rain stops and the cooler dry months follow, mantellas become less active. The severity of this dry season varies in different parts of Madagascar. Some mantellas, such as M. milotympanum, aestivate in extreme conditions until the weather improves; others simply become less visible and live among leaf litter on the forest floor waiting for rain to return.
Sadly, 10 of the 16 Mantella species are considered threatened with extinction by the World Conservation Union because of their small distribution and declining populations. Habitat destruction is the largest problem facing the genus as agriculture, logging, charcoal production and livestock grazing eat away at the last mantella habitats. Collection of frogs for the pet trade has also notably affected these frogs.
The Difference Between Dendrobatidae and Mantella Poison Frogs
Often associated with the similarly small and colorful South American poison frogs of the Dendrobatidae family, mantellas also possess poisonous alkaloids in their skin. However, mantellas seem to loose their toxicity in captivity over time. Although not very dangerous to humans, contact with the frogs should be avoided.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Mantella laevigata is the only nonterrestrial mantella. Its enlarged toe pads enable it to climb into small tree holes and bamboo wells, where they breed.
One mantella species, M. laevigata, also shares the trait of providing parental care in common with dendrobatids. Mantella laevigata females feed infertile eggs to their tadpoles to ensure they get the food they need.
Although they share many things in common with dendrobatids, mantellas are not closely related to them. They are placed within the anuran subfamily Mantellinae. Their taxonomy seems to constantly be under revision, and it has changed considerably during the past two decades. Currently, there are 16 recognized species. Many other mantellas appearing different from the described species exist, but work still needs to be done in order to determine their official status.
Pick Your Poison Frog
Of all Madagascar’s frogs, Mantella aurantiaca is the most recognized. Varying in shades of orange and red, they are hardy in captivity when provided with cool conditions, meaning the temperature in their enclosure rarely rises above 75 degrees Fahrenheit. They live in several swamp forests in east-central Madagascar, and adults measure between 0.8 and 1.2 inches. At this time they are not exported for the pet trade, but captive-bred frogs are periodically available from breeders and dealers.
Once thought to be a color variety of M. aurantiaca, M. milotympanum can be distinguished by its smaller size (usually 0.7 to 0.9 inches), granular skin and black tympanums. The species is only known to occur in several pockets of gallery forest near swamps, and it’s also critically endangered, yet it still sporadically appears in the pet trade. Golden and lime-green frogs exist, which otherwise appear identical to M. milotympanum, but await further research.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Female M. crocea grow close to an inch in length, but males may mature at only 0.7 inches.
Closely related to M. milotympanum is M. crocea. Colored yellow, khaki-brown or bronze, the frog’s monotone color is broken by a chocolate face mask, and often brown speckling on the dorsum and limbs. Female M. crocea grow close to an inch in length, but males may mature at only 0.7 inches. These frogs have a tiny distribution, and inhabit forests similar to and near those of M. aurantiaca and M. milotympanum in east-central Madagascar. In captivity, they are hardy as long as they are not exposed to temperatures above the mid to high 70s.
Two other mantella frogs largely brown in color are M. betsileo and M. ebenaui. The two appear nearly identical with russet to copper-colored backs, black flanks and grayish limbs. Both grow to about 0.8 inches long. It’s not possible to tell them apart based on appearance alone. Mantella ebenaui lives in lowland rain forests, tree plantations and human-altered forests in the north of the island. Mantella betsileooccurs farther south with few known populations. At this time, all brown mantellas found for sale are normally sold as M. betsileo, but I speculate that many are in fact M. ebenaui.
Also confusingly similar in appearance are the two painted mantellas: M. baroni and M. madagascariensis. Dorsally, both have elegant lime-green blotches where their limbs attach to their bodies, and these blotches contrast with their black dorsum and striking orange and black legs.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Once thought to be a color variety of M. aurantiaca, M. milotympanum can be distinguished by its smaller size (usually 0.7 to 0.9 inches), granular skin and black tympanums.
This beautiful pattern is present on both species though they are not closely related. To tell the two apart, examine their throats. Mantella madagascariensis has a sky-blue, horseshoe-shaped marking. Mantella baroni has a single dot or solid-black throat. Additionally, the red on the limbs of M. madagascariensis extends fully through its thighs, but the color stops at the joint on M. baroni.
Mantella baroni grows to between 0.9 and 1.2 inches in length, and a mature M. madagascariensis is between 0.8 and 1.1 inches. Although M. baroni has a large distribution throughout the remaining forests in eastern Madagascar, M. madagascariensis has a smaller range and is confined to primary rain forest. Both species are often found near streams and exist sympatrically in at least one location. Both are rarely bred in captivity, and imports are frequently mixed up together under the all-inclusive common name “painted mantella.”
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Mantella baroni grows to between 0.9 and 1.2 inches in length.
A third frog sometimes confused with the two painted mantellas is M. pulchra. Although somewhat variable in the wild, most imported frogs of this species look like a messy, faded version of M. madagascariensis with the contrasting orange and black legs replaced by a pattern of browns. Brown is also present on the dorsum and usually fades to light tan at the very tip of the head. Mantella pulchra measures between 0.8 and 1 inch, and it lives in moist forests in northeastern Madagascar often near streams or swamps. They have a reputation for being rather shy in captivity, but they gladly come out in the open when offered food.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Mantella bernhardi is the smallest mantella, ranging between three-fourths and 1 inch in length.
The most remarkably patterned mantella is M. cowani, which is dressed in black and contrasting neon red, orange or yellow. These frogs reach between 0.9 and 1.1 inches in length. Their eye-catching patterns fueled a demand for the species far greater than its dwindling wild populations could support, and in 2003 all exports were fortunately stopped. Habitat destruction also has taken a large toll on M. cowani, and it is now confined to small strips of forest along streams in the central highlands. In captivity, the frog is sensitive to even moderately warm temperatures. Some people report frequent exposure to temperatures above 70 degrees can cause heat stress and death. For this reason, M. cowani must be kept in a cool basement or air-conditioned room.
Opposite the striking appearance of M. cowani is the mildly patterned M. bernhardi. Mainly black with hints of gray on the head, this is the smallest mantella species. It often only grows to 0.7 of an inch in length. It has a unique trill-like call, consisting of several clicks strung together. All other male mantellas produce one or two notes. Only a handful of M. bernhardi populations are known to occur in lowland rain forests of southeast Madagascar.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
The largest of the mantellas, Mantella viridis can reach up to 1.2 inches in length.
The big daddy of mantella frogs is M. viridis. The species can reach 1.2 inches and has a stocky, robust body structure. Similar to that of M. crocea, its pattern is a solid-green body interrupted by a black face mask. These frogs are restricted to extreme northern Madagascar, where they live near seasonal streams in dry forests. In captivity they can take relatively large food items and greedily devour half-inch-long crickets.
One highly prized species is M. expectata. It displays remarkable sky-blue legs and a contrasting lemon-yellow dorsum. These frogs measure between 0.8 and 1 inch in length. In captivity, my group displays these attractive colors when kept in drier conditions. When exposed to a simulated rainy season, they fade to a less attractive steel-blue and mustard-yellow. Mantella expectata is limited to the dry southwest of Madagascar mostly near seasonal streams and rocky canyons.
One mantella appearing in the pet trade in the recent past is often sold as a color variety of M. expectata or under the common name “blushing mantella.” These frogs have markings similar to M. expectata, but the yellow of the dorsum is replaced by an orange that fades to deep crimson posteriorly. The legs are also different, not blue but gray and sometimes splashed with the same crimson found on the dorsum. The status of this frog’s species remains unclear.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
With a range in northern Madagascar, Mantella nigricans can be found streamside at the forest’s edge.
The only nonterrestrial member of the genus is M. laevigata. With their enlarged toe pads, they can climb to the small tree holes and bamboo wells in which they breed. Mantella laevigata can grow to 1.1 inches in length. Two-tone in pear-green and black, they resemble the closely related M. manery.
Mantella manery differs by having a white frenal stripe and dark-brown body. Described in 1999, only a couple of the frogs have been recorded where they were found in primary forest near a stream.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
The “blushing mantella” is sold as a color variety of Mantella expectata, but its status still remains unclear.
Mantella nigricans has a large range in northern Madagascar, but it has only been exported in small numbers and is uncommon in captivity. This frog is a streamside species, living at the forest edge often near water. Colored walnut-brown and lime-green, these frogs appear at first glance like an unusually green M. pulchra. Mantella nigricans grows to 1.1 inches. Particularly bold in captivity, males call relentlessly after feeding or misting with a metallic-sounding chirp.
Lastly, there’s Mantella haraldmeieri. Found in the far southeast of Madagascar, they live in humid rain forests often along streams. Copper-colored hind limbs contrast with the mint-green of their upper forearms and brown body. Mantella haraldmeieri measures between 0.8 and 1.1 inches in length. They are not often seen in captivity.
Madagascar Dart frogs
Aromobatidae :
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Allobatinae
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Anomaloglossinae
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Aromobatinae
South America Dart Frogs - Species
Dendrobatidae :
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Colostethinae
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Dendrobatinae
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Hyloxalinae
Wild Caught Woes
Wild mantellas are particularly sensitive when first acquired, and they usually arrive malnourished and with parasites. For this reason, quarantine newly imported frogs for several weeks or months in simple housing. Monitor them carefully, and treat problems with the necessary medication as advised by a veterinarian. After this acclimation period they can be moved to more permanent setups.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Highly desirable for its bright-blue legs and lemon-colored dorsum, Mantella expectata has colors that can fade during a simulated rainy season.
Although the overwhelming majority of mantellas found for sale are wild-caught, breeding does occur in captivity. Talk to people at a local herpetological society and search the Internet to locate the captive-bred species you are looking for.
Go Amateur or Pro
A standard 15-gallon aquarium lined with an inch of wetted sphagnum moss, a few pieces of cork bark, artificial plants and a small, shallow water bowl are sufficient for a group of six frogs. Moist paper towels can be used as an alternative to moss, but it must be changed frequently, sometimes daily, to ensure the frogs’ health. Sphagnum moss should be taken out and rinsed periodically, and replace it as needed.
Because of these frogs’ territorial behavior, provide sufficient hide spots, so all frogs feel secure. Artificial or live plants, pieces of cork bark, crumpled and moist paper towel, driftwood, or film canisters are all good options.
Alternatively, living terraria can be created to house mantellas. The bacteria and live plants in these systems help break down waste and minimize the amount of work needed to maintain them. It can be more difficult to monitor mantellas in these complex setups, but the aesthetics of a carefully designed terrarium outweigh this for some people.
A basic terrarium design consists of a drainage layer (gravel, LECA or a false-bottom of some sort), followed by nylon mesh. Several inches of soil and leaf litter are placed atop the mesh. Avoid potting soil because the added chemical fertilizers may irritate or harm mantellas. Instead, opt for a pre-mixed soil blend from a pet store or terrarium supply company. Tropical plants will grow well in this substrate, but remember to first rinse them thoroughly before placing them in the enclosure to remove pesticides. Use driftwood or cork-bark tubes to create dramatic effects and provide the frogs with places to perch.
Photo Credit: Devin Edmonds
If live plants are grown within the enclosure, make sure the lighting provided does not overheat the cage.
Whether choosing a simple setup or living terrarium, a temperature range between 65 and 75 degrees works well. Some species, such as M. aurantiaca, M. cowani and M. crocea, are particularly sensitive to warm temperatures, and they quickly decline in health when exposed to them. Others, such as M. expectata and M. laevigata, prefer temperatures several degrees warmer than the aforementioned range. Daytime highs can reach nearly 80 degrees.
If live plants are grown within the enclosure, make sure the lighting provided does not overheat the cage. Allow the humidity level to remain high most of the time, particularly when temperatures are on the warmer side. Achieve this by using glass or plastic wrap to seal sections of a screen cover and misting the cage as needed. Some species from drier regions of Madagascar, such as M. expectata and M. viridis, may prefer less humid conditions than rain forest species, such as M. madagascariensis or M. nigricans.
Feeding Mantella Frogs
Mantellas have a tremendous appetite. Feed them small crickets, flightless fruit flies, termites, roach nymphs, small spiders, rice-flower beetle larvae, small waxworms and other available invertebrates.
PHOTO CREDIT: DEVIN EDMONDS
Mantellas such as this Mantella pulchra, have a tremendous appetite. Feed them small crickets, flightless fruit flies, termites, roach nymphs, small spiders, rice-flower beetle larvae, small waxworms and other available invertebrates.
Feed the frogs twice a week or in small quantities daily, and offer anywhere from two to 10 food items per frog depending on the kind and size of the feeders, and the frequency with which you feed the frogs. Use high-quality vitamin and mineral supplements so the frogs’ nutritional requirements are met. Alternately, use a calcium and multivitamin supplement lightly on food during most feedings.
A Dynamic Display
Acclimated, healthy mantellas make wonderful captives. Their fascinating behavior, and the bright contrasting colors and patterns of many species, make them an ideal candidate for the tropical terrarium. Male frogs engage in charming territorial conflicts involving calling and sometimes even physical combat depending on the species. Predominately diurnal, they spend much of the day hunting for food and patrolling their territory, and you can easily view this interesting behavior.
Madagascar Dart frogs :
Mantella : Introduction .. Further reading , Videos and as a pet
Species :
1- Mantella aurantiaca - golden mantella : Part 1 .. Part 2
2- Mantella baroni : Part 1 .. Part 2
3- Mantella laevigata : Part 1 .. Part 2
5- Mantella pulchra : Part 1 .. Part 2
7- Mantella Other species : PART ONE .. PART TWO
Madagascar Dart frogs :
Mantella : Introduction .. Further reading , Videos and as a pet
Species :
1- Mantella aurantiaca - golden mantella : Part 1 .. Part 2
2- Mantella baroni : Part 1 .. Part 2
3- Mantella laevigata : Part 1 .. Part 2
5- Mantella pulchra : Part 1 .. Part 2
7- Mantella Other species : PART ONE .. PART TWO